Cluster
More Is Different !!!
Clusters can be defined as geographical concentrations of interconnected industry firms that cooperate among themselves, creating competitive advantages on doing so (Porter, 1990). The pioneer study about this matter is by Alfred Marshall (1920), which brought the concept of industrial district, an agglomeration of small businesses in the same locality.
Clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers, and associated institutions in a particular field. Porter argues that industries thrive when they exist nearby and share common resources, technologies, and workforce skills.
Cluster Policy is a strategic approach in productive policy aimed at fostering economic growth by promoting the development of geographically concentrated groups of interconnected industries, firms, and institutions to enhance innovation, competitiveness, and collaboration.
Tailored support programs, sector-specific incentives, and development roadmaps for manufacturing, agriculture, and services industries.
The policy space to develop or enhance a productive ecosystem involves creating an enabling environment through targeted regulations, incentives, and institutional frameworks.
Supply Chain Resilience Programs: Policies and initiatives focused on building resilient and robust supply chains to mitigate risks and disruptions.
Cluster policy involves targeted initiatives by governments to promote collaboration, innovation, and competitiveness among interconnected businesses and institutions within specific geographic or industry clusters.
An economic sector refers to a distinct segment of the economy with similar types of economic activities, such as agriculture, manufacturing, or services.
Promote an holistic thinking around productive activities and structures.
Modeling the competitiveness of an industrial ecosystem in a country involves capturing and analyzing key concepts that influence the performance, growth, and sustainability of industries.
«…los países y las regiones que logran tener altas tasas de crecimiento son aquellos que logran acumular la mayor cantidad de know-how, pero no tanto a nivel individual, sino a nivel colectivo: el todo sabe más porque cada individuo sabe distinto; es la división del know-how entre individuos lo que permite que la sociedad en su conjunto sepa más: la especialización a nivel individual lleva a la diversificación a nivel colectivo. A medida que las personas y empresas se especializan, las ciudades y las regiones se diversifican. De ahí que insista en que más que una «especialización inteligente», los territorios deben apuntarle a una «diversificación inteligente».
Development blocks encapsulate the concept of regional or sectoral clusters of industries, businesses, and infrastructure that interact synergistically to catalyze economic growth and innovation within a particular area or sector.
- What is a cluster?
- How to detect clusters?
- Which are the effects of proximity?
- How to design and nurture clusters?
- ¿How can a country enter into a new industry?
- ¿Will a company be successful in the country?
- How to design & manage productive ecosystem?
- ¿What the relation of a cluster and firm competitive?
- ¿What’s the effect of synergies in industry competitive?
- ¿What’s is the relation of development blocks and clusters?
- How to model critical mass and phase changes in the productive ecosystem? I want to understand productive development?
Why do cluster policy?
- Companies did not leave in isolation - some competitive problems are at the cluster level.
- Clear Goals.
- Whatever general policy → clusters must appear.
- Targeted policies to help cluster catch up & innovate. Because the money is limited
- …
Firm Space
Firm space refers to a multi-dimensional feature space where each dimension corresponds to a measurable attribute of a firm.
| Category | Features (Dimensions) |
|---|---|
| Sectoral | NAICS/ISIC code, sub-sector type |
| Technological | Patent classes, R\&D intensity, tech stack |
| Organizational | Firm size, governance type, foreign/local ownership |
| Market-based | Customer types, export orientation, market segments |
| Innovation | Product novelty, collaboration score, digital tools |
| Input structure | Source of raw materials, supplier reliance |
| ... | ... |
Distance Measures:
- Gower Distance
- Manhattan (City Block) Distance
- Jaccard Distance
- Cosine Similarity / Distance
- Euclidean Distance
Cluster Synergies
Cluster synergies arise from the concentration of related industries and organizations, enhancing productivity, accelerating R&D, fostering innovation, and driving regional economic growth through shared resources, expertise, and networks.
- Production / Service Enterprises
- Technology Mastery
- Innovation: Testing Facilities, …
- I+D+I: Public, Universities, Private Centers
Effects of Clustering in Industry
| Effect | Description |
|---|---|
| Increased Collaboration | Facilitates knowledge sharing and networking opportunities among businesses and institutions. |
| Enhanced Innovation | Promotes higher levels of R&D investment and fosters creative solutions through idea exchange. |
| Economies of Scale | Reduces costs through shared resources and services; allows firms to specialize and improve efficiency. |
| Access to Talent | Attracts skilled workers and supports specialized training programs tailored to industry needs. |
| Market Expansion | Strengthens brand presence and enhances access to global markets through collaboration. |
| Supportive Ecosystems | Creates robust supply chains and encourages infrastructure development tailored to industry requirements. |
| Economic Development | Generates job creation and increases local investment and public revenue. |
| Cultural and Social Impact | Enhances community identity and social networks through local businesses and cultural heritage. |
| Increased Competitiveness | Improves productivity and resilience to market changes among firms within the cluster. |
| Sustainability and Environmental Impact | Promotes shared best practices and innovation in eco-friendly technologies. |
Metrics
| Criteria Category | Criteria | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Economic Impact | Export Performance | Volume and value of exports generated by firms within the cluster. |
| Employment Levels | Number and quality of jobs created within the cluster. | |
| Business Density | Number of businesses per square mile/km operating within the cluster area. | |
| Innovation and Collaboration | Collaboration on Innovation | Extent of collaboration between firms and research institutions (e.g., joint projects, academic partnerships). |
| R&D Intensity | Percentage of revenue or resources invested in research and development activities. | |
| Patents and Intellectual Property | Volume of patents, trademarks, and copyrights registered by cluster firms. | |
| Knowledge Sharing | Frequency and effectiveness of knowledge exchanges within the cluster (e.g., through workshops, conferences). | |
| Joint Ventures and Partnerships | Number of joint ventures, partnerships, and alliances formed within the cluster. | |
| Network and Linkages | Business Linkages | Degree of interaction and collaboration between firms, suppliers, and service providers. |
| Supplier Network Density | Availability and variety of suppliers within or near the cluster. | |
| Support Structures | Institutional Support | Presence and role of support institutions, such as incubators, accelerators, or public research centers. |
| Policy and Regulatory Support | Support from government policies or favorable regulatory conditions for cluster growth. | |
| Funding Access | Availability of venture capital, grants, or other funding sources within the cluster. | |
| Human Capital | Talent Attraction and Retention | Ability to attract and retain skilled workers within the cluster. |
| Skill Levels | Level of education and skills of the workforce within the cluster. | |
| Market and Business Environment | Market Reach and Access | Ability to access local, regional, or global markets. |
| Industry Diversity | Range of industries and sub-industries present within the cluster. |
https://www.accio.gencat.cat/es/inici/index.htmla
¿What is the relation between a cluster and firm competition?
…
- Delgado, Mercedes. "Do clusters really matter for companies’ competitive strategies? Evidence at the country level." Unpublish manuscript, at,< http://astro. temple. edu/~ mdelga do/index_files/DelgadoPaper. pdf>,(2.9. 2014) (2005).
- Jacobs, Dany, and Ard-Pieter De Man. "Clusters, industrial policy and firm strategy." Technology Analysis & Strategic Management 8.4 (1996): 425-438.
- Li, Jun, and Shuai Geng. "Industrial clusters, shared resources and firm performance." Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 24.5-6 (2012): 357-381.
- Delgado, Mercedes. "Do clusters really matter for companies’ competitive strategies? Evidence at the country level." Unpublish manuscript, at,< http://astro. temple. edu/~ mdelga do/index_files/DelgadoPaper. pdf>,(2.9. 2014) (2005).
- Karaev, Aleksandar, S. C. Lenny Koh, and Leslie T. Szamosi. "The cluster approach and SME competitiveness: a review." Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management 18.7 (2007): 818-835.
- …
Cluster Development Tools
Cluster Action Plans: Developing action plans involves strategic goal-setting, resource allocation, and timelines for implementing initiatives that support cluster development. These plans provide a roadmap for stakeholders to work collaboratively toward common objectives.
Industry Analysis and Benchmarking: Conducting thorough industry analysis and benchmarking against global standards helps identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats within a cluster. This analysis guides cluster development strategies and helps set realistic goals for improvement.
Cluster Branding and Marketing: Tools for branding and marketing the cluster can include the development of promotional materials, online platforms, and participation in trade shows and events. Effective branding helps attract investment, talent, and business opportunities to the cluster.
…
| Category | Tool | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Financial Incentives | Grants and Subsidies | Direct financial support for R&D, innovation, and infrastructure improvements. |
| Tax Incentives | Tax credits or deductions for cluster firms in R&D, training, and green initiatives. | |
| Venture Capital and Investment Funds | Seed funding or venture capital programs for cluster startups and SMEs. | |
| Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) | Funding for infrastructure or innovation projects through partnerships with the government. | |
| Export Financing and Guarantees | Financial support to help cluster companies enter international markets. | |
| Knowledge & Innovation | Research and Development (R&D) Grants | Funding for collaborative projects between firms and research institutions. |
| Innovation Vouchers | Small grants for SMEs to collaborate with universities or research centers. | |
| Incubators and Accelerators | Facilities and programs offering mentorship, resources, and funding for startups. | |
| Centers of Excellence | Specialized research institutions advancing knowledge and technology in the cluster. | |
| Cluster-Based Intellectual Property Support | Assistance with patents and IP protection to foster innovation. | |
| Human Capital | Skills Training Programs | Workforce training programs tailored to develop skills needed in the cluster. |
| Apprenticeships and Internships | Partnerships between educational institutions and cluster firms for hands-on experience. | |
| Talent Attraction Initiatives | Incentives to attract highly skilled workers to the cluster. | |
| Executive Education and Leadership Programs | Courses to improve management and innovation skills of cluster leadership. | |
| Infrastructure | Special Economic Zones (SEZs) | Designated areas with benefits to attract firms and investment. |
| Industrial Parks and Innovation Hubs | Dedicated spaces with shared facilities to promote synergies. | |
| Digital Infrastructure | Investments in high-speed internet, data centers, and digital platforms. | |
| Transportation and Logistics Infrastructure | Improvements in logistics networks to enhance supply chain efficiency. | |
| Market Access | Export Promotion Programs | Initiatives to help cluster firms expand into international markets. |
| Trade Missions and Fairs | Events for networking with foreign buyers and showcasing products. | |
| Branding and Marketing Initiatives | Strategies to build a recognizable brand for the cluster’s products and services. | |
| Global Cluster Alliances | Partnerships with international clusters for knowledge exchange and market access. | |
| Networking | Cluster Associations | Organizations that coordinate activities and advocate for the cluster’s interests. |
| Innovation Platforms and Online Hubs | Digital tools for collaboration among firms and stakeholders. | |
| B2B Networking Events | Events to facilitate partnerships and knowledge sharing among cluster firms. | |
| Cross-Sectoral Collaboration Programs | Initiatives promoting interaction between different industry sectors within the cluster. | |
| Policy Support | Cluster-Focused Regulatory Adjustments | Adapted regulations to support specific cluster needs. |
| Innovation-Friendly Policies | Laws and policies supporting R&D tax credits and streamlined approvals. | |
| Regional Development Programs | Government programs that allocate resources to support regional clusters. | |
| Environmental and Sustainability Standards | Guidelines for adopting sustainable practices within the cluster. | |
| Social & Environmental | Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Programs | Initiatives encouraging cluster firms to engage in community-focused projects. |
| Green Cluster Certification | Certifications for clusters that adopt environmentally sustainable practices. | |
| Local Community Engagement | Partnerships and programs involving the community to strengthen social ties and workforce access. | |
| Environmental Grants and Subsidies | Financial incentives for cluster firms adopting green technologies or sustainable practices. |
On Entering New Industries and Lone-Starts Firms
…
On The Use of Foreign Firm to Catalyze a New Cluster
Cluster Governance
Cluster governance refers to the structures, processes, and institutions that coordinate and guide the development of a cluster. Effective governance is essential to ensure that the collective interests of firms and stakeholders are advanced through strategic planning, joint investment, capability upgrading, and market access.
Governance Models
| Model Type | Characteristics | Best Used When |
|---|---|---|
| Lead-Firm Model | A dominant firm coordinates supply chains and sets standards (e.g., Nestlé, Intel) | Clusters built around a strong anchor company |
| Network Model | Horizontal coordination among SMEs or cooperatives; distributed leadership | Clusters with high SME density and trust |
| Facilitator-Led Model | Public or NGO intermediary (e.g., cluster agency, university) drives coordination | Early-stage clusters or fragmented ecosystems |
| Hybrid Model | Combination of public and private leadership with shared platforms | Most effective in mature or strategic clusters |
Core Governance Functions
- Export Market Development
- Bulk Buy of Raw Materials
- ...
| Function | Activities |
|---|---|
| Strategic Coordination | Vision setting, roadmap creation, joint investment plans |
| Institutional Anchoring | Hosting organization (e.g., university, chamber, agency) that ensures continuity |
| Communication & Engagement | Stakeholder forums, working groups, newsletters, events |
| Project Management | Managing joint R\&D, training programs, infrastructure proposals |
| Monitoring & Evaluation | Tracking metrics (KPIs), learning from experience, policy feedback |
Key Actors in Cluster Governance
| Actor Type | Role |
|---|---|
| Private Firms | Define priorities, co-invest, lead initiatives |
| Public Sector | Policy alignment, regulatory support, funding leverage |
| Universities/R\&D Centers | Knowledge generation, training, innovation facilitation |
| Financial Institutions | Provide tailored capital, de-risk innovation |
| Intermediaries | Coordinate, mediate interests, manage cluster platform |
| Community / Labor Organizations | Support local inclusion and sustainability |
Governance Instruments
| Instrument | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Cluster Management Organization (CMO) | Dedicated body to coordinate and implement cluster activities |
| Cluster Charter or MOU | Formal agreement on shared goals and responsibilities |
| Thematic Working Groups | Sub-groups on innovation, skills, exports, infrastructure, etc. |
| Innovation Platforms / Observatories | Joint R\&D agenda, data platforms, foresight exercises |
| Public–Private Dialogue (PPD) | Continuous negotiation and feedback loop between state and industry |
Success Factors
✅ Neutral facilitator with legitimacy ✅ Clear mandate and vision shared among members ✅ Inclusive representation (SMEs, women, youth, indigenous actors, etc.) ✅ Access to flexible funding (grants, pooled investment, PPPs) ✅ Ability to deliver quick wins to build trust and momentum ✅ Monitoring system to ensure transparency and course correction
Indicators of Effective Governance
| Indicator | Description |
|---|---|
| Participation Rate | % of relevant firms and institutions actively engaged |
| Joint Initiatives Executed | Number and scale of R\&D, training, export projects delivered |
| Satisfaction Score | Stakeholder perception of cluster leadership |
| Policy Influence | Ability of the cluster to shape or benefit from regional/national policy |
| Resilience & Adaptability | Governance responds to shocks (e.g., price crashes, climate events) |
Cluster Diagnosis Matrix
The matrix is a 2D table that scores the cluster across key dimensions, often on a Likert scale (e.g., 1 to 5) or traffic-light colors (red/yellow/green).
| Dimension | Key Questions | Score (1–5) | Evidence / Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Critical Mass | Are there enough firms, workers, and output to sustain a cluster? | 4 | 75% of national rice production in 3 provinces |
| Specialization / Concentration | Does the region specialize in this sector? | 5 | Location Quotient (LQ) = 2.1 |
| Value Chain Completeness | Are upstream and downstream actors present? | 3 | Weak packaging sector; inputs still imported |
| Innovation Capacity | Is there R\&D, labs, new product development? | 2 | No specialized lab or rice varietal program |
| Talent & Skills | Are there enough trained workers and institutions? | 3 | Local technical schools exist, but no rice-specific programs |
| Governance & Coordination | Is there a platform or organization coordinating efforts? | 2 | Informal networks; no formal cluster platform |
| Access to Markets | Can products reach local/export markets? | 4 | Good logistics; port nearby; demand growing |
| Infrastructure & Services | Do firms share infrastructure or services? | 2 | No industrial park or shared processing center |
| Finance & Investment | Is capital available for cluster development? | 3 | Government microfinance exists, but limited industrial capital |
| Policy Support | Are there policies aligned with the cluster’s growth? | 4 | Agroindustrial incentives but poorly focused |
Cluster Analysis
Michael Porter's cluster analysis, as outlined in his seminal work on competitive advantage, involves the examination of industry clusters to understand and enhance the competitiveness of regions or nations.
- Components of Clusters: Clusters comprise multiple elements, including companies, suppliers, research institutions, educational organizations, and supporting infrastructure. Porter identified that these elements work collaboratively, creating a competitive advantage for the entire cluster.
- Role of Supporting Industries: Porter emphasizes the significance of supporting industries within a cluster. These industries provide crucial inputs, services, and expertise that contribute to the competitiveness and innovation of the core industries.
- Linkages and Interconnectedness: The strength of a cluster lies in the linkages and interconnectedness between its components. Companies benefit from sharing resources, exchanging knowledge, and collaborating on research and development.
- Productivity and Innovation: Clusters enhance productivity and innovation by exchanging ideas and developing shared resources. Companies within a cluster can collectively address challenges, leading to improved competitiveness.
- Factor Conditions: Porter identifies four key factors that influence the competitiveness of clusters: skilled labor, specialized infrastructure, research institutions, and a supportive local market. The presence and quality of these factors contribute to theProductive cluster's success.
- Competitive Advantage: Clusters create a competitive advantage by fostering a business environment where companies can innovate, compete globally, and continuously improve. The shared infrastructure and resources contribute to the collective success of the cluster.
- Role of Government and Institutions: Government and institutions play a crucial role in supporting and nurturing clusters. Policies that encourage collaboration, investment in infrastructure, and the development of a skilled workforce contribute to cluster success.
- Dynamic Nature of Clusters: Clusters are active and evolve. Changes in technology, market dynamics, and global trends can impact the competitiveness of clusters. Continuous adaptation and innovation are essential for sustained success.
- Policy Implications: Porter's cluster analysis has implications for policymakers. It suggests that policies should focus on strengthening the factors that contribute to the competitiveness of clusters, such as education, infrastructure, and innovation support.
- Application to Regional Development: The cluster concept is often applied to regional development strategies. Governments and business leaders can use cluster analysis to identify and enhance the strengths of regional industries.
- Global Competitiveness: Porter's cluster analysis has global implications, emphasizing that nations can enhance global competitiveness by fostering strong and innovative industry clusters.
Tools
How to cluster industries?
- Patent-Based Technology Overlap
- Firm-Level Diversification Patterns
- Skills and Workforce Cross-Utilization
- Industry Supply Chain and Input Structure
- Product Architecture and Systems Similarity
- Scientific & Engineering Knowledge Base Overlap
References
- Enflo, K., Kander, A., & Schön, L. (2008). Identifying development blocks—a new methodology: Implemented on Swedish industry 1900–1974. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 18, 57–76.
-
Taalbi, J. (2015). Development Blocks in Innovation Networks. The Swedish Manufacturing Industry, 1970-2007.
-
Carlsson, Bo och Rolf G. Henriksson (red.) (1991). Development Blocks and Industrial Transformation – The Dahménian Approach to Economic Development. Stockholm: IUI.
- Enflo, Kerstin, Astrid Kander, and Lennart Schön. "Development blocks and the second industrial revolution-Sweden 1900-1970." (2006).
- Ville, Simon, and Olav Wicken. "The dynamics of resource-based economic development: evidence from Australia and Norway." Industrial and Corporate change 22.5 (2013): 1341-1371.
- Dahmén, Erik. "‘Development blocks’ in industrial economics." Scandinavian Economic History Review 36.1 (1988): 3-14.
- Intarakumnerd, Patarapong. "The roles of intermediaries in clusters: The Thai experiences in high‐tech and community‐based clusters." Asian Journal of Technology Innovation 13.2 (2005): 23-43.
- Delgado, Mercedes, Michael E. Porter, and Scott Stern. "Defining clusters of related industries." Journal of Economic Geography 16.1 (2016): 1-38.
- Florida, Richard. "Agglomeration and industrial location: An econometric analysis of Japanese-affiliated manufacturing establishments in automotive-related industries." Journal of urban economics 36.1 (1994): 23-41.
- Schmiedeberg, Claudia. "Evaluation of cluster policy: a methodological overview." Evaluation 16.4 (2010): 389-412.
- Uyarra, Elvira, and Ronnie Ramlogan. "The effects of cluster policy on innovation." (2012).
- Ketels, Christian. "Cluster policy: A guide to the state of the debate." Knowledge and the Economy. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2013. 249-269.
- Lundmark, Linda, and Örjan Pettersson. "The relevance of cluster initiatives in rural areas: Regional policy in Sweden." Urbani izziv 23 (2012): S42-S52.
- Lundequist, Per, and Dominic Power. "Putting Porter into practice? Practices of regional cluster building: evidence from Sweden." European planning studies 10.6 (2002): 685-704.
- Park, Sang-Chul. "Innovation policy and strategic value for building a cross-border cluster in Denmark and Sweden." AI & society 29.3 (2014): 363-375.
- Martin, Roman, and Michaela Trippl. "The evolution of the ICT cluster in southern Sweden–regional innovation systems, knowledge bases and policy actions." Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 99.3 (2017): 268-283.
- Power, Dominic, and Daniel Hallencreutz. "Cultural industry cluster building in Sweden." Proximity, Distance and Diversity. Routledge, 2017. 25-45.
- Braunerhjelm, Pontus, and Bo Carlsson. "Industry Clusters in Ohio and Sweden, 1975--1995." Small Business Economics 12 (1999): 279-293.
- Martin, Southern Sweden Hanna, and Lars Coenen. "Institutional context and cluster emergence: The biogas industry in Southern Sweden." Broadening Our Knowledge on Cluster Evolution. Routledge, 2018. 99-117.
- Braunerhjelm, Pontus, et al. "The old and the new: the evolution of polymer and biomedical clusters in Ohio and Sweden." Journal of Evolutionary Economics 10 (2000): 471-488.
- Dohse, Dirk. "Cluster‐Based Technology Policy—The German Experience." Industry and Innovation 14.1 (2007): 69-94.
- Nilsson, Magnus, and Jerker Moodysson. "Regional innovation policy and coordination: Illustrations from Southern Sweden." Science and Public Policy 42.2 (2015): 147-161.
- Blomström, Magnus, Ari Kokko, and Fredrik Sjöholm. "Growth and innovation policies for a knowledge economy: Experiences from Finland, Sweden, and Singapore." Background paper for the LAC Flagship Report. Washington, DC: World Bank (2002).
- Yström, Anna, and Hedvig Aspenberg. "Open for innovation? Practices supporting collaboration in Swedish regional clusters." International journal of innovation management 21.05 (2017): 1740008.
- Ketels, Christian. Clusters, cluster policy, and Swedish competitiveness in the global economy. Stockholm: Globalisation Council, 2009.
- Sundqvist, Helena. "The Swedish Automotive Cluster: How will it be affected by foreign acquisitions at the end of the value chain?." (2011).
- JOHN ST, CARON H., and Richard W. Pouder. "Technology clusters versus industry clusters: Resources, networks, and regional advantages." Growth and Change 37.2 (2006): 141-171.
- Liu, Zihui, et al. "Detecting industry clusters from the bottom up based on co-location patterns mining: A case study in Dongguan, China." Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science 48.9 (2021): 2827-2841.
- Intarakumnerd, Patarapong, and Jan Vang. "Clusters and innovation systems in Asia." Science, Technology and Society 11.1 (2006): 1-7.
- Intarakumnerd, Patarapong. "Thailand's Cluster Initiatives: Successes, Failures and Impacts on National Innovation System." Asian Industrial Clusters, Global Competitiveness and New Policy Initiatives. 2009. 467-506.
- McCormack, D. “African Enterprise Clusters and Industrialization: Theory and Reality.” World Development (September, 1999).
- Industry Cluster Analysis: Regional Economic Base Analysis
- Clusters and the New Economics of Competition
- Clusters and Economic Policy: Aligning Public Policy with the New Economics of Competition
- Why Innovation Hubs Fail
- https://blog.iaac.net/the-perks-of-proximity-clustering-advanced-industries-to-facilitate-technology-transfer-in-the-barcelona-metropolitan-region/
- Enflo, K., Kander, A., & Schön, L. (2006). Development blocks and the second industrial revolution-Sweden 1900-1970.
- Enright, Michael J. "Regional clusters: what we know and what we should know." Innovation clusters and interregional competition. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2003. 99-129.
- Delgado, Mercedes, Michael E. Porter, and Scott Stern. "Defining clusters of related industries." Journal of Economic Geography 16.1 (2016): 1-38.
- Delgado, Mercedes, Michael E. Porter, and Scott Stern. "Clusters, convergence, and economic performance." Research policy 43.10 (2014): 1785-1799.
- Karlsson, Charlie, and Roger Stough, eds. Industrial clusters and inter-firm networks. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2005.
- Enflo, K., Kander, A., & Schön, L. (2006). Development blocks and the second industrial revolution-Sweden 1900-1970.
- Dahmén, E. (1984). Schumpeterian dynamics: Some methodological notes. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 5(1), 25-34.
- Intarakumnerd, P. (2006) “Thailand’s Cluster Initiatives: Successes, Failures and Impacts on National Innovation System”, Paper presented at International Workshop’s Program Industrial Clusters in Asia: Old and New Forms, Lyon, France, November 29-30 and December 1.
- Intarakumnerd, Patarapong, and Kriengkrai Techakanont. "Intra-industry trade, product fragmentation and technological capability development in Thai automotive industry." Asia Pacific Business Review 22.1 (2016): 65-85.
- Institute for Small and Medium Industry of the Generalitat Valenciana
- https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/T4CHWJ
- Carlsson, Bo och Rolf G. Henriksson (red.) (1991). Development Blocks and Industrial Transformation – The Dahménian Approach to Economic Development. Stockholm: IUI.
- Enflo, Kerstin, Astrid Kander, and Lennart Schön. "Development blocks and the second industrial revolution-Sweden 1900-1970." (2006).
- Ville, Simon, and Olav Wicken. "The dynamics of resource-based economic development: evidence from Australia and Norway." Industrial and Corporate change 22.5 (2013): 1341-1371.
- Dahmén, Erik. "‘Development blocks’ in industrial economics." Scandinavian Economic History Review 36.1 (1988): 3-14.
- ‣
- An Essay on Designing a Private R&D Services Market
- Baptista, Rui, and Peter Swann. "Do firms in clusters innovate more?." Research policy 27.5 (1998): 525-540.
- ‣
- Zhao, Lyuhang, Jianqing Ruan, and Xinjie Shi. "Local industrial policies and development of agricultural clusters: a case study based on a tea cluster in China." International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 24.2 (2021): 267-288.
- Kim, L. (1980). Stages of development of industrial technology in a developing country: a model. Research policy, 9(3), 254-277.
- Tybout, J. R. “Manufacturing Firms in Developing Countries: How Well Do They Do, and Why?” Journal of Economic Literature (March 2000).
- Intarakumnerd, Patarapong. "Technological learning and innovations of manufacturing firms in selected ASEAN countries: An implication for future collaboration with Taiwan." Industrial Development of Taiwan. Routledge, 2021. 143-160.
- Upgrading in Global Value Chains: Lessons from Latin American Clusters
- The productivity effects of regional anchors on local firms in Swedish regions between 2007 and 2019—evidence from an expert-informed machine learning approach https://academic.oup.com/joeg/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jeg/lbae038/7825821?searchresult=1
- On the productivity advantage of cities Get access Arrow https://academic.oup.com/joeg/article-abstract/24/5/679/7697243
- Industrial policy initiatives in manufacturing: Examining cross-country interventions through an evolutionary typology of technology systems https://academic.oup.com/spp/article/51/5/823/7685863
- Nanotechnology and knowledge relatedness: how to identify optimal regional partners in EU innovation networks? https://academic.oup.com/spp/article/51/5/879/7686928
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silhouette_(clustering)
- Cluster
- Feser, E. J., & Bergman, E. M. (2000). National industry cluster templates: A framework for applied regional cluster analysis. Regional studies, 34(1), 1-19.
- Padmore, T., & Gibson, H. (1998). Modelling systems of innovation:: II. A framework for industrial cluster analysis in regions. Research policy, 26(6), 625-641.
- Benito, G. R., Berger, E., De la Forest, M., & Shum, J. (2003). A cluster analysis of the maritime sector in Norway. International Journal of Transport Management, 1(4), 203-215.
- Division of Labor: Assign firms to functions that maximize specialization and minimize redundancy.
- Connectivity Optimization: Balance network density—too sparse → fragile supply chain; too dense → coordination overhead.
- Modularity: Encourage clusters by function; modular clusters facilitate scalability, knowledge transfer, and innovation.
- Redundancy / Resilience: Ensure alternative pathways exist for critical inputs; prevents systemic failures.
- Aggregator Nodes: Lower barriers for small firms; accelerate innovation adoption and market reach.
- Knowledge Flows: Explicitly structure links for R&D spillovers, not just material supply.
- Functional Structure in Production Networks - https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/big-data/articles/10.3389/fdata.2021.666712/full
- The capability profiles of global production networks: an empirical typology to identify opportunities for network reconfiguration and calibration - - https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09537287.2024.2387299
- Characterization of the community structure in a large-scale production network in Japan - https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.00203