Technology
In this note, we explore the notion of technology—a concept of great importance, yet one often surrounded by ambiguity, reductionism, and confusion. Understanding what technology truly signifies is essential for clarifying its role in development, policy, and the organization of productive systems.
On Notions of Technology
What are the various levels at which the same element can be understood? How is technology commonly understood? What are the limits of this understanding?
Note: Among the lay public, the most common notion—or level of understanding—of the element denoted by the word technology is that of tools, gadgets, and devices. This level of understanding, however, is not useful for development policy, as it focuses on the results of technical research rather than on the whole process—from technical research, through technical constructs, to technical objects des igned for consumption or for enabling production—and on the social organization that sustains and evolves around it.
Notions:
- Lay Public: Technology is seen as modern tools, gadgets, and machines — tangible symbols of progress and convenience. It is equated with innovation or advancement, often stripped of context, technique, or systemic interdependence.
- Economist: Technology is treated as a production factor or productivity driver, often modeled as an exogenous variable in growth functions (e.g., “technological progress” in the Solow model). It is equated with efficiency, innovation, or knowledge capital.
- Sociologist: Technology is viewed as a social construct and mediator — a network of human and non-human actors (Latour, Callon) or as material culture shaping behavior and institutions.
- Engineer: Technology is understood as a body of applied knowledge — the systematic use of scientific principles to design and operate technical systems.
Formulation
What is Technology? Technology is a somewhat complex notion that can be best deconstructed into two main components: Technical Objects and Techniques—with Techniques further divided into Constitutive Techniques and Operative Techniques.
Technical Objects: These are physical or digital artifacts, systems, or devices created to perform specific functions or tasks. They embody constitutive techniques that enable their operation and serve as the material manifestation of technology, making techniques usable in practical contexts.
Technology: Technical Research -> Technique -> Technique Used.
Innovation: The transformatio of the transformation. (X → Y) → (X → better Y); AKA tech R&D.
Terminology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Technology | A complex notion encompassing technical objects, techniques, and the socio-technical processes that enable production and innovation. |
| Technical Object | Physical or digital artifacts, systems, or devices created to perform specific functions; the material manifestation of technology. |
| Technical Research | Systematic inquiry into principles, mechanisms, and possibilities of technical functioning; generates new techniques. |
| Technique | A structured method of action that mobilizes knowledge, tools, and materials to achieve a transformation in matter, energy, or information. |
| Technical Knowledge | Mastery and understanding of a technique; combines know-how with practical skill in creating or using technical objects. |
| Constitutive Technique | Underlies technical objects or processes; embedded in the structure or function of the object or system (e.g., doping in semiconductors, alloying in metallurgy, fermentation in bioprocessing). |
| Operative Technique | Governs the use, operation, and coordination of technical objects within productive systems (e.g., CNC machine operation, assembly-line management). |
| Production Technical Object (Capital Good) | Technical objects used directly for production rather than consumption. |
| Constitutive Technical Object | A technical object that forms an integral, functional part of a final product (e.g., a microchip in a smartphone, a battery in an EV, or an enzyme in a biopharmaceutical). |
| Technogenesis | The process by which new techniques, technical objects, and technological systems originate and evolve. It encompasses discovery, experimentation, recombination of existing techniques, and the institutional processes through which novel technical capabilities emerge and stabilize. |
| Tecnogenia · (Potentia Tecnogenética) · Innovative Capability · Tecnoadopción · Absorptive Capacity · Technological Capability | The generative capacity of an actor (individual, firm, institution, or society) to produce technogenesis; the capability to originate new techniques, technical objects, or technological systems through research, experimentation, and technical recombination. |
Technical Research
What is Technical Research? Technical Research refers to the systematic inquiry into the underlying principles, mechanisms, and possibilities of technical functioning—that is, into the ways by which matter, energy, or information can be transformed, controlled, or organized to achieve desired outcomes.
What is the output of Technical Research? It yeild new technique(s).
What is its relation with innovation in firms? Technical Research provides the technical foundation upon which innovation builds. It expands the space of technical possibilities that firms can later apply, combine, or commercialize. In other words, innovation draws upon the results of technical research to create new products, processes, or services that generate economic or strategic value.
How does it differ from innovation in firms? Technical Research aims to discover and validate new techniques, while innovation aims to apply and exploit those techniques in practical or market contexts.
| Aspect | Technical Research | Innovation in Firms |
|---|---|---|
| Purpose | Expand technical knowledge and feasibility. | Apply technical knowledge for competitive or market advantage. |
| Output | New or improved techniques. | New or improved products, services, or business models. |
| Evaluation | Technical validity, novelty, and performance. | Market adoption, profitability, and impact. |
| Orientation | Exploratory, knowledge-generating. | Applied, value-generating. |
| Temporal Role | Precedes and enables innovation. | Implements and commercializes research outcomes. |
Technique
What is a technique? What are the types of technique(s)?
A technique is a structured method of action that mobilizes knowledge, tools, and materials to produce a determined transformation in matter, energy, or information.
Technical Knowledge: It is knowledge and mastery of a technique. It combines understanding how something works with the practical ability to apply it effectively. In other words, it is both know-how and skill embedded in the use or creation of technical objects and processes.
Note: Genetic Modification is not a technical object (it’s not a thing you manipulate in the world by itself), and it’s not an operative technique (unless you count a specific lab protocol). It’s a constitutive technique, part of the deep technical knowledge that underlies applied operations.
A constitutive technique does not need to underlie only technical objects; it can also directly underpin processes or methods, such as genetic modification.
| Type | Description | Case(s) |
|---|---|---|
| Constitutive Technique | Underlie the technical objects that enable production—they are built into the object’s functioning or structure. | Doping in semiconductors, alloying in metallurgy, fermentation in bioprocessing. |
| Operative Technique | Govern the use, operation, and coordination of those objects within productive systems. | CNC machine operation, assembly-line balancing, reactor control. |
Case Study
How does an industry embody the process from technical research to technical construct and ultimately to product?
Note: This is WRONG; Only the Spirit is Right.
| Industry | Technical Research | Constitutive Technique(s) | Operative Technique(s) | Product |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Semiconductors | Materials science, nanolithography, transistor physics | Doping, photolithography, chemical vapor deposition, etching | Process integration, yield optimization, scaling management | Microprocessors, memory chips, SoC devices |
| Aerospace | Aerodynamics, propulsion, materials engineering | Composite molding, turbine design, avionics integration | Thrust vectoring, flight control, maintenance diagnostics | Aircraft, satellites, drones |
| Agricultural Machinery | Soil mechanics, hydraulics, automation control | Hydraulic actuation, power transmission, machine design | Precision guidance, adaptive soil–tool interaction | Smart tractors, autonomous harvesters |
| Biopharmaceuticals | Molecular biology, protein engineering, bioprocess design | Fermentation, chromatography, cell culture, purification | Process control, scaling, aseptic handling | Vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, biosimilars |
| Automotive (EV) | Electrochemistry, power electronics, control systems | Battery chemistry, inverter design, motor control architecture | Regenerative braking, power management, diagnostics | Electric vehicles, battery packs |
| Renewable Energy (Solar) | Photovoltaic physics, material science, energy conversion | Thin-film deposition, doping, lamination | Tracking systems, energy conversion optimization | Solar panels, integrated solar systems |
| Telecommunications | Signal theory, electromagnetic propagation, optical systems | Modulation, multiplexing, encoding | Network routing, load balancing, error correction | Routers, smartphones, base stations |
| Computing / AI Systems | Parallel computing, machine learning, chip architecture | Hardware acceleration, quantization, tensor computation | Model training, optimization, inference scheduling | AI models, computing platforms, digital tools |
| Construction & Materials | Structural dynamics, composite design, automation | Prefabrication, 3D printing, reinforcement design | Robotic assembly, project sequencing, BIM coordination | Modular buildings, infrastructure systems |
| Shipbuilding | Hydrodynamics, propulsion, naval architecture | Hull shaping, propulsion coupling, material treatment | Navigation control, safety operations, maintenance logistics | Cargo ships, naval vessels |
| Mining & Mineral Processing | Ore characterization, process chemistry, automation | Drilling, separation, flotation | Process monitoring, ore blending, system optimization | Refined metals, industrial minerals |
| Textiles | Polymer chemistry, weaving mechanics, finishing processes | Spinning, weaving, dyeing | Quality control, pattern design, finishing optimization | Technical fabrics, garments |
| Food Processing | Food chemistry, preservation, packaging | Fermentation, dehydration, sterilization | Batch control, temperature regulation, safety inspection | Processed foods, beverages |
| Healthcare Devices | Biomedical engineering, signal acquisition, materials science | Imaging, biosensing, additive manufacturing | Calibration, patient interfacing, feedback control | MRI scanners, prosthetics, smartwatches |
| Rail & Transport Systems | Mechanical engineering, systems automation, power electronics | Traction motor design, signaling circuits | Speed control, route management, energy recovery | High-speed trains, metro systems |
| Information Systems | Software engineering, data modeling, network design | Modularity, encryption, data structuring | Deployment, version control, orchestration | Platforms, enterprise software, web applications |
QA
Why is a bicycle a technical object?
A bicycle is a technical object because it is a designed artifact that embodies techniques and materials to perform a specific function—transporting a person efficiently.
Which products are not technical objects?
Products that exist in their natural state or require no applied techniques to function are not considered technical objects.
Examples include:
- Water without any processing
- Fresh fruits and vegetables
- Raw minerals or unprocessed natural resources
References
- Technology
- Technolog Catalog
- Why the USSR failed - and China succeeded
- Gilbert Simondon – Du mode d’existence des objets techniques
- Nathan Rosenberg – Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics
- Bernard Stiegler – Technics and Time
- Endogenous Growth Literature (Paul Romer, 1990s)
- Joseph Schumpeter – Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942)
- Richard Nelson & Sidney Winter – An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change (1982)